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Thursday 19 April 2012

Confirmations used for confirming accounts receivables


a.)        ‘Positive’ confirmations and ‘Negative’ confirmation are the two types of confirmation used for accounts receivable. A positive confirmation is a communication addressed to the debtor requesting him/her to confirm whether the balance as stated in the confirmation is correct or not.

A negative confirmation is one where a response is requested from the debtor, if the balance stated in the confirmation is incorrect.

Positive confirmations are used in case of debtors where large amounts are due and the number of accounts is low. Positive confirmations are also used when there is evidence or suspicion of fraud or serious error. When regulatory authorities require balances, the positive balance confirmations are used. Negative confirmations are used when the number of ‘Accounts Receivable’ accounts is large and individual balances are small.

(b.)       For evaluating the collectibility of the Accounts Receivable, the auditors would look into the ageing of the Accounts Receivable and discuss collectibility of individual accounts with the personnel of the clients. They may also examine the correspondence with the important customers and also the financial statements of these customers.

(c.)       When the public accountant comes across an instance where a debtor fails to respond to positive confirmation, the accountant cannot presume that the debtor checked the request and did not respond because there is no error. There may be some busy customers who do not find enough time to check their confirmations. But there may be cases also, where frauds or embezzlements might have taken place. The Public Accountant may desire that such accounts may further be pursued with second positive confirmations.

(d.)       When no response is received for second positive confirmation, the auditors resort to alternative procedures for verification. They examine the customer’s formal remittance advice and cash receipts journals. Correspondence in client’s files can also be checked to for satisfactory evidence. Verification of shipping documents, sales invoices contracts and other instruments are also useful. In certain unusual cases, the auditor can telephone the client and have a discussion with him directly. In cases where substantial amounts are involved, the public auditor may go to the extent of investigating the existence of customer or his financial status.

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Monday 9 April 2012

Nature of Data used in Qualitative Research


1. Qualitative Research & Methods employed

            Qualitative research is a scientific research which seeks to understand a given research problem or topic from the perspectives of the local population it involves.

             The three most common qualitative methods are participant observation, in-depth interviews, and focus groups.
(a)Participant observation is appropriate for collecting data on naturally occurring behaviors in their usual contexts.
(b) In-depth interviews are appropriate for collecting data on individuals’ personal histories, perspectives and experiences, particularly when sensitive topics are being explored.
(c)Focus groups are effective in eliciting data on the cultural norms of a group and in generating broad overviews of issues of concern to the cultural groups or subgroups represented.

These three methods generate data by way of field notes, audio (and sometimes video) recordings, and transcripts.
                                      
                                         2. Trustworthiness and Researcher Bias
          
                Trustworthiness is an essential component of qualitative research. Findings should reflect the reality of the experience. Providing participants with the opportunity to review the researchers interpretation of the data (Koch, 1994 ) can identify this trustworthiness or credibility. Another strategy used to maximize the trustworthiness of the findings is to undertake member checks . This involves taking analysis back to the participants to ensure it represents reasonable account of their experience (Parahoo, 1997) thus, minimizing researcher bias In this way biased results can be avoided and a reliable description of a given phenomena provided (Beck, 1994). However, research by Mayes & Pope (1995) & Clarke (1999) argue that reliability is enhanced when more than one skilled qualitative researcher is involved in the analysis process. This is seems a sound suggestion.
                                        
                                                             3. Confirmability
                Patton says that objectivity in research suffers because the intrusion of the researcher’s biases is inevitable (Patton, 1990). The concept of confirmability is the qualitative investigator’s comparable concern to objectivity.  Here steps must be taken to help ensure as far as possible that the work’s findings are the result of the experiences and ideas of the informants, rather than the reflections and ideas of the researcher. The method of triangulation can be used to reduce the bias of the investigator and promote confirmability. Miles and Huberman(1994)consider that a key criterion for confirmability is the extent to which the researcher admits his or her own.
                                       
                                                              4. Coding
           An objectivist approach treats code words as “condensed representation of the facts described in the data” (Seidel & Kelle, 1995).It should be ensured that (1.) the codes are adequate surrogates for the text they identify (2.) the text is reducible to the codes and (3.) it is appropriate to analyze relationships among codes. If these conditions are not met then an analysis of relationships among code words is risky business. (Seidel, 1991)
  
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